专业英语——心理学

Psychology

          25考研结束啦，很多同学都对自己进行了估分，估完分就到了要准备复试的环节了，对于很多同学来说口语是最难的一部分，今天为心理学的同学们准备了专业英语词汇。可以持续关注新东方考研网，为你提供广西历年研究生资讯信息，帮助大家了解名种研究生相关信息。

一、名词解释

1. 聚合交叉研究 cross-sequential design 
聚合交叉研究是将横断设计和纵向设计结合起来，是指选取不同年龄的被试对其心理发展水平进行追踪研究。

Cross-sequential study combines cross-sectional design and longitudinal design, and refers to the selection of subjects of different ages to track and study their psychological development level.

2. 双生子设计 twin design
通过比较同卵双生子和异卵双生子在某一特质或行为上的相似性，可了解遗传、环境对心理发展的影响。多用于智力、人格研究。

By comparing the similarity of identical twins and fraternal twins on one trait or behavior, we can understand the influence of heredity and environment on psychological development. This method is often used for the study of intelligence and personality.

3. 关键期critial period
该问题来源于习性学家洛伦兹关于“印刻”的研究。

儿童心理发展存在着敏感期，在某一特定的时期有某种心理倾向使儿童对特定事物或活动产生积极性和兴趣并能有效地对其认识和掌握，而过了这一时期上述情况会消失且不复出现。

This problem roots in the study on imprinting by ehologist Lorenz.

There is a sensitive period in children’s psychological development. In a certain period, there is a certain psychological tendency making children to produce positivity and interest in specific things or activities, and making children to recognize and grasp them effectively. However, after this period the above situation will disappear, and no longer reappear. 

4. 攻击行为aggressive behavior
侵犯行为，又称攻击行为，针对他人的敌视、伤害或破坏性行为。分为工具性侵犯和敌意性侵犯两类。

Aggression, also called aggressive behavior, refers to the hostility, harm and disruptive behavior to others. It includes two categories, instrumental aggression and hostile sexual assault.

5. 自我中心egocentrism
皮亚杰用自我中心对儿童认知特点进行描述，自我中心是指儿童仅依靠其自身的视角来感知世界、不能意识到他人可能具有不同视角和观点的倾向性。在皮亚杰的研究中，前运算阶段（2~6/7岁）的儿童，思维发展表现出明显的自我中心。

Piaget use egocentrism to describe children's cognitive characteristics. Egocentrism means that children only rely on their own perspective to perceive the world, and cannot realize that others may have different perspectives and opinions. In Piaget’s research, for children in preoperational stage (aged 2 ~ 6/7) show obvious self-centered thinking development.

6. 心理理论theory-of-mind
心理理论是指凭借一定的知识系统对自己或他人的心理状态进行推测，并据此对行为进行因果解释，预测和控制的能力；（研究者：Premack和Woodruff）最初由普雷马克和伍德拉夫研究黑猩猩时提出，后被应用到儿童身上。

Theory-of-mind refers to speculating one’s own or others’ mental status with certain knowledge system, and according to having the ability to conduct causal explanation, prediction and control; (researchers: Premack and Woodruff) this theory was first put forward by Premack and Woodruff to study chimpanzees, and afterwards was applied to children.

7. 正迁移、负迁移 positive transfer and negative transfer
根据迁移的性质不同，可以将迁移分为正迁移和负迁移。正迁移，是指一种学习对另一种学习的积极影响；负迁移是指一种学习对另一种学习的消极影响，多指一种学习所形成的心理状态。

According to the nature of transfers, the transfers can be divided into positive transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer refers to the positive effect of a kind of learning to another one; Negative transfer refers to the negative influence of a kind of learning to another one, which often refers to a kind of psychological state formed by learning.

8. 操作性条件反射、经典条件反射operant conditioned reflex and classical conditioned refelx
经典条件反射是指一个刺激和另一个带有奖赏或惩罚的无条件刺激多次联结，可使个体学会在单独呈现该一刺激时，也能引发类似无条件反应的条件反应。 经典条件反射最著名的例子是巴甫洛夫的狗的唾液条件反射。经典条件反射具有获得、消退、恢复、泛化四个特征；操作条件反射由美国心理学家斯金纳命名，是一种由刺激引起的行为改变。操作条件反射与经典条件反射不同，操作条件反射与自愿行为有关，而巴甫洛夫条件反射与非自愿行为有关。

Classical conditioned reflex refers to the connection between a stimulus and the other with reward or punishment for many times. It not only makes individuals learn to present the stimulus alone, but also triggers the conditioned response which is similar to the unconditioned response. The most famous example of classical conditioned reflex is Pavlov’s dog’s saliva conditioned reflex. Classical conditioned reflex has four characteristics: acquisition, extinction, recovery and generalization. Operant conditioned reflex, named by American psychologist Skinner, is a kind of behavior change caused by stimula. Different from classical conditioned refelx, operant conditioned reflex is associated with voluntary behaviors, while pavlovian conditioned reflex is associated with involuntary behaviors.

9. 自我效能感 self-efficacy
自我效能指人们对于自己是否能够成功地从事某一成就行为的主观判断。

Self-efficacy refers to the subjective judgment by people of whether they can successfully be engaged in a certain achievement behavior or not.

10. 归因理论 attribution theory
归因理论的指导原则和基本假设是：寻求理解是行为的基本动因。最早提出归因理论的是海德，他指出，当人们在工作和学习中体验到成功或失败时，会寻找成功或失败的原因。一般来说，人会把行为的原因归结为内部原因和外部原因两种。罗特在海德理论的基础上提出了“控制点”的概念，将个体分为内控型和外控型。维纳系统提出了动机的归因理论，证明了成功和失败的因果归因是成就活动过程的中心因素。维纳也把成就行为的原因划分为内部原因和外部原因， 同时把“稳定性”作为一个新的纬度。

The guiding principle and basic assumption of attribution theory are that seeking to understand is the basic agent of behaviors. The attribution theory was firstly put forward by Heider. He points out that when people experience success or failure in their work and study, they will look for the reason of success or failure. In general, people will attribute the reasons of behaviors to internal causes and external causes. On the basis of Heider’s theory, Rotter puts forward the concept of "control points", and divided individuals into internal control and external control. Wiener-type system proposes the attribution theory of motives and proves that the causal attribution of success and failure is the centeral factor of the process of achievement activities. Wiener also devides the reasons of achievement behaviors into internal causes and external causes, and regards the "stability" as a new latitude at the same time.

11. 临床心理学clinical psychology
是研究和处理异常行为问题的学科，是心理学在临床，主要在医学应用的一门专业学科。临床心理学注重对人类个体的能力和特点的测量和评估并根据所收集到的资料对个体进行分析，以支持其所得的有关结论。临床心理学工作者去帮助那些存在心理困扰的人们，其中心理治疗和心理咨询工作就是临床心理学的重要内容。

12. 弗洛伊德《梦的解析》Fraud’s Interpretation of Dreams
是奥地利心理学家西格蒙得·弗洛伊德的一本著作，是一本经典的心理学书籍。该书开创了弗洛伊德的“梦的解析”理论，被作者本人描述为“理解潜意识心理过程”的捷径。该书引入了本我概念，描述了弗洛伊德的潜意识理论，是用于解析梦，引申到心理学，解读人们的潜意识在梦中的表象。书中作者声称他发现了三大真理：梦是无意识欲望和儿时欲望的伪装的满足；俄狄浦斯情结是人类普通的心理情绪；儿童是有性爱意识和动机的。

13. 来访者中心疗法client-centered therapy
也称为求助者中心疗法，是20世纪60年代兴起的，由罗杰斯所倡导，这种咨询方法认为任何人在正常情况下都有着积极的、奋发向上的、自我肯定的无限的成长潜力，在很大程度上能够理解自己并解决自己的问题，无需咨询师进行直接干预，人能够通过自我引导而成长。

14. 工作满意度 job satisfaction
工作满意度描述了人们对工作特点进行评估而产生的对工作的积极的态度。

15. MBTI  Myers Briggs Type Indicator
迈尔斯-布里格斯类型指标是最广泛使用的人格框架之一。根据个人的回答可以把个体区分为外向的或内向的、领悟的或直觉的、思维的或情感的、判断的或感知的，在此基础上组合出16种人格类型。

16. 非正式团体 informal group
非正式团体不是由组织正式组建，而是自然或自发形成的，由于情趣一致或爱好相仿，利益接近或观点相同，以及彼此需要等原因把人们联结在一起，并且依靠心理、情感的力量来维持的团体。

17. 权变领导contingency leadership
弗雷德·菲德勒提出了“权变领导理论“，即根据影响领导行为效果的情境因素选择最佳的领导方式。

18. 组织结构framework of organization
界定了对工作任务进行正式划分、组合和协调的方式。

19. 职场灵性 workplace spirituality/ job performance work value
指人们内心生活会支持社会背景下有意义的工作，同时，个体的内心生活也会受到有意义工作的培养和支持。

20. 人格面具 persona
人格面具。指人格最外层的那种掩首真我的假象，总是按着别人的期望行事，与其真正人格并不一致。

21. 本我id
原始的、与生俱来的和非组织性的结构，本我是原始的潜意识的本能，是基本的驱力源，包括性、攻击等本我过程。

22. 自我ego
从本我中分化而来，是人格中有组织的、合理的、现实取向的系统，也是意识的结构成分。

23. 超我superego
是从本我中分化出来、道德化了的自我，处于人格的最高层。

24. 自我同一性self-identity
自我同一性，即青少年同一性的人格化，是指青少年的需要、情感、能力、目标、价值观等特质整合为统一的人格框架，即具有自我一致的情感与态度，自我贯通的需要和能力，自我恒定的目标和信仰。

25. 自我实现self-actualization
自我实现的需要是马斯洛提出的最高层次的需要，是人类所特有的需要，是指促进个体发挥自身最大潜能的需要，是促使潜在能力得以实现的趋势。

强化：斯金纳理论的核心概念之一，当有机体表现出某种行为后，如果紧随其后出现的某一事件或刺激能使该行为出现的几率增加，那么该事件或刺激就具有强化（或增强）作用，这一事件或刺激被称为强化物，强化物对个体行为的作用称为强化。

大五模型：人格理论模型，将人格分为五个维度，外倾性、宜人性、尽责性、神经质、开放性，每个人在这五个维度上所处的位置不同，因而人格有差异。

26. 进化人格心理学Evolutionary Personality Psychology
自然选择过程对心理机制也起作用。这些心理机制是人类特有的机能，使人类有效地应对日常问题和需要，经过自然选择，有利于人类生存和繁衍的心理机制被保留下来，而不能应对生存挑战的则被淘汰。

27. 投射测验projective test
投射测验是向被试提供一些未经组织的刺激情境，让他在不受限制的情况下，自由表现出他的反应，分析反应的结果，便可推断他的人格结构。

28. 实验设计experimental design
实验设计是进行科学实验前做的具体计划，其主要是用来控制实验条件和安排实验程序。实验设计是实验成功的关键，它的目的在于尽可能减少额外的或未控制的变量，从而增加实验产生有效的一致结果的可能性。

29. 交互作用（交互效应）interaction effect
一项实验中有两个或两个以上因素，当一个因素的效果在另一个因素的每一水平上不一样时，称两个因素之间存在交互作用。

30. 信度reliability 
信度是指测量结果的稳定性程度或一致性程度，有时也叫测量的可靠性。

31. 效度validity
效度是指一个测验或量表实际能测出其所要测的心理特质的程度。

32. 标准分数standard score
又称基分数或z分数，是以平均数为参照点，以标准差为单位表示一个原始分数在团体中所处位置的相对位置量数。

33. Ⅰ型错误和Ⅱ型错误 Type I Error and TypeⅡError
Ⅰ型错误是虚无假设正确时，拒绝虚无假设所犯的错误；Ⅱ型错误是虚无假设错误时，没有拒绝却接受了该假设所犯的错误。

34. 流体智力和晶体智力fluid intelligence and crystalized intelligence
流体智力是指在信息加工和问题解决过程中所表现出来的能力。一般人在20左右流体能力达到顶峰，30岁开始随年龄的增长而降低；晶体智力是指获得语言、数学等知识的能力，它取决于后天的学习，与社会文化有密切的关系，它在人的一生中都在发展，但是25岁后发展的速度渐趋平缓。

35. 工作记忆working memory
工作记忆指信息加工过程中，对信息进行暂时储存加工的、容量有限的记忆系统。巴德利等人认为，它是由多个成分组成的加工系统，包括语音环路、视觉空间模板、情景缓冲器、中央执行系统四个成分。

36. 创造性思维creative thinking
创造性思维是指人们应用新颖的方式解决问题，并能产生新的、有社会价值的产品的认知活动过程。

37. 认知风格cognitive style
认知风格是指个体所偏爱使用的信息加工方式，也叫认知方式。例如，场独立性和场依存性认知风格。

38. stroop效应stroop effect
stroop效应是利用刺激材料在颜色和意义上相矛盾，要求被试说出字的颜色，而不是念字的读音，结果发现，说字的颜色时会受到字义的干扰。

二、简答题

1. 请浅谈你对毕生发展观思想的认识
Please talk about your understanding of life-span/ life-span perspective/ the view of life-span development.

毕生发展观认为，发展并没有在成年（成熟）后结束，而是扩展到了整个生命过程，它是动态、多维度、多功能和非线性的，心理结构与功能在一生中都有获得、保持、转换和衰退的过程。

Life-span holds that individual development extends throught the whole life course instead of stopping after individuals become mature. Individual development is dynamic, multi-dimensional, multi-functional and nonlinear. Mental struction and function both have the process of acquisition, maintaining, conversion and recession.

毕生发展观的基本思想主要体现为：

（1）个体发展是整个生命发展的过程；

（2）个体的发展是多方面、多层次的；

（3）个体的发展是由多种因素共同决定的。

The basic ideas of life-span mainly include:

(1) individual development is the process of whole life development;

(2) individual development is multi-sided and multi-layered;

(3) individual development is codetermined by multi-factors.

2. 在心理咨询中价值中立原则和价值干预的问题上，你所持的观点和态度是怎样的？ 
With regard to the principle of value neutrality and value intervention in psychological consult/ counselling/ consultation, what’s your viewpoint and attitude?

价值中立是西方人本主义心理咨询的基本准则，它要求咨询师在咨询过程中对来访者的价值取向不评价、不干涉、不指责，始终保持客观中立的态度。

Value neutrality is the basic principle of psychological counselling based on western humanism. It requires counselors to keep objective and neutral all the time during the counse-lling process, and not to evaluate, intervene and censure visitors’ value orientation.

但是，在咨询中完全保持中立或无价值几乎是做不到的，大多数心理治疗要想取得疗效，就必须对当事人进行适宜的价值干预。因此，在心理咨询过程中，只有正确运用价值中立与价值干预，才能促进来访者心理健康发展。

However, it is hardly possible to keep completely neutral during the counselling process. For most psychotherapy, in order to obtain curative effect, counselors must make suitable value intervention towards visitors. Therefore, during the counselling process, only by properly using value neutrality and value intervention, can counselors promote visitors’ mental health development.

价值干预的基本原则：

（1）咨询者应该对自己的价值观有高度的自觉，对咨询中的价值问题有高度的敏感。

（2）承认多元化价值取向存在的权利。

当涉及价值问题的时候，鼓励咨询者公开、清晰地和来访者讨论，同时不故意地以任何明白或隐晦、直接或间接的方式把自己的价值观强加于来访者。

（3）遵循一批有相对普遍意义的价值，如：①尊重人的生命；②尊重真理；③尊重自由和自主；④重信守诺言和义务；⑤关心弱者、无助者；⑥关心人的成长和发展；⑦关心不让他人遭到损害；⑧关心人的尊严和平等；⑨关心感恩和回报；⑩关心人的自由等。

（4）小心地处理治疗者的价值与来访者的价值不一致的问题。

The basic principles of value intervention:

(1) counselors should be highly conscious of their own values and highly sensitive of the questions about values;

(2) counselors should admit the rights of existence of multi-value orientation;

(3) counselors should abide by a group of values with relatively universal meaning;

(4) counselors should carefully deal with the problem of inconformity between healers’ vaule and visitors’ value.

3. 什么是学习迁移？举例说明一种学习迁移
What is learning transfer? Give an example to explain a kind of learning transfer.

学习迁移是指在一种条件下进行的学习对另一种条件下学习的影响。学习迁移种类繁多，常见的有按照迁移的性质，区分为正迁移、负迁移和零迁移。

Learning transfer refers to the effect of the learning under a kind of condition on the lerning under another kind of condition. There are various kinds of learning transfer. According to the nature of transfer, learning transfers are divided into positive transfer, negative transfer and zero transfer.

正迁移，如学好数学有利于学习物理。

For example, learning maths well benefits learning physics well, whichi is a kind of positive transfer.

4. 请谈谈你对来访者中心疗法的看法
Please talk about your opinion about client-centered therapy.

代表学者：罗杰斯

Representative scholar: Rogers 

基本观点：心理治疗的中心是当事人，强调要相信当事人的人格力量，充分尊重当事人的个性。来访者中心疗法的基本假设是：来访者是自己最好的专家，他们有能力找到解决自己问题的办法。

Basic idea: the center of psychotherapy is clients, and counselors should trust the power of personality of clients and fully respect clients’personality. Fundamental assumption: visitors are best experts of their own, and they have the ability of find solutions to problems by themselves.

治疗方法：无指导式指导方法：①真诚一致。②无条件积极关注。③设身处地的理解。

Therapeutic method: guideless supervised method: genuineness; undonditional positive regard; empathetic understanding.

5. 请简单分析、比较场独立型和场依存型认知风格。
Please briefly analyze and compare field-independent cognitive style and field-dependent cognitive style.

认知风格(cognitive style)指个人所偏爱使用的信息加工方式。人格的差异不仅表现在行为反应上，还表现在认知风格上。从这个角度讲，人格包含了认知风格。

Cognitive style refers to the information processing mode everyone prefers. Differences in personality are reflected both from behavior reaction and from cognitive style. From this perspective, personality includes cognitive style.

认知加工方式主要有：场独立性和场依存性，冲动性和沉思性，同时性和继时性。

The modes of information processing mainly include: field-independent style and field-dependent style, impulsive style and contemplative style, simultaneous style and metachronism.

场独立性（field-independent,FI）的人在信息加工中对内在参照有较大的依赖倾向，他们的心理分化水平较高，在加工信息时主要依据内在标准或内在参照，与人交往时也很少能体察入微；而场依存性（field dependent,FD）的人在加工信息时，对外在参照有较大的依赖倾向，他们的心理分化水平低，处理问题时往往依赖于“场”，与别人交往时较能考虑对方的感受。

Field-independent people tend to rely more on internal reference when processing information. Their psychological differentiation level is higher. They maily rely on internal norm/ standard or internal reference when processing information, and rarely make detailed observation when dealing with others. On the contrary, field-dependent people tend to rely more on external reference when processing information. Their psychological differentiation level is lower. They tend to depend on the “field” when handling problems, and consider others’ feelings more when dealing with others.

6. 简述心理学研究的一般过程。
Please briefly describe the general process of psychological study.

心理学研究一般包括五个步骤：

（1）提出问题和假设

（2）设计研究方案

（3）实施研究并搜集资料

（4）处理分析资料

（5）检验假设并作出结论

Psychological study includes fives steps:

(1) raise questions and assumptions;

(2) design research programme;

(3) implement research and collect data;

(4) analyze data;

(5) test assumptions and draw a conclusion.

心理学研究是没有终结的，一个问题解决了或一个假设被验证了，又在此基础上产生新的问题或假设，又开始一个新的研究过程。

Psychological study is endless.

7. 心理学研究中的变量有哪些，如何控制额外变量？
How many variables are there in psychological study? And how can we control extraneous variable?

研究中的变量包括自变量、因变量和额外变量。自变量是被实验者所操纵的、对被试的反应产生影响的变量；因变量是操纵自变量而引起的被试的某种特定反应；额外变量是对因变量产生影响但是研究者不感兴趣的变量。

The variables in psychological study include independent variable, dependent variable and extraneous variable.

在心理学研究中，控制额外变量的干扰是非常重要的环节。常见的控制额外变量的方法有：消除法、恒定法、匹配法、随机化法、抵消平衡法、统计控制法。（1）消除法是把额外变量从实验中排除出去；（2）恒定法是使额外变量在实验过程中保持恒定不变；（3）匹配法是使实验组和控制组中的被试属性相等的一种方法；（4）随机化法是把被试随机地分派到各处理组中去的技术；（5）抵消平衡法是通过采用某些综合平衡的方法使额外变量的效果互相抵消以达到控制额外变量的目的的方法；（6）统计控制法是在实验完成后通过一定的统计技术来避免实验中额外变量的干扰。

In psychological study, it is very important to control the interference of extraneous variable. Common ways to control extraneous variable include elimination method, constant method, matching method, randomized method, counterbalancing method and statistical control method. (1) Elimination method refers to the method to eliminate extraneous variable from the experiments. (2) Constant method refers to the way to keep extraneous variable constant in experiments. (3) Matching method refers to the method to make the attributes of subjects in experimental group equal to that of subjects in control group. (4) Randomized method refers tp to the method to assign subjects randomly to different treatment groups. (5) Counterbalancing method is the way to employ certain methods of aggregate balancing to make effects of extraneous variables offset. (6) Statistical control method is the way to use cetain statistical techniques to avoid the interference of extraneous variable after experiments are completed.

8. 请简述内隐记忆与外显记忆的区别。
Please briefly introduce the difference between implicit memory and explicit memory.

内隐记忆指在个体无法意识的情况下，过去经验对当前任务产生的无意识的影响；外显记忆指在意识控制下，过去经验对当前任务产生的影响。

Implicit memory refers to the unconscious effect of past experience on present tasks under the condition that individuals are unconscious. Explicit memory refers to the effect of past experience on present tasks under the control of consciousness.

二者在保持时间、干扰形式、记忆负荷量、加工深度和呈现形式上均有差异。

They are different in holding time, interference form, memory load, depth of processing and presenting mode.

同时，其测量方式也不同。其中，内隐记忆的主要表现形式是启动效应，即执行某一任务对后来执行同样的或类似的任务的促进或抑制作用。对其的常见测量方式包括：知觉辨认、词干补笔。

Besides, their measurement modes are different. The main presenting mode of implicit memory is priming effect. Its common measurement methods include perceptual discrimination and word stem completion.

9. 简述你所了解的心理学前沿研究方法，如认知神经科学。
Please briefly introduce/ talk about the frontier research method of psychology, such as cognitive neuroscience.

认知神经科学是认知心理学与神经科学的结合，以认知的脑机制、认知与神经的关系，脑的发育以及认知的发展作为其主要研究对象，在很大程度上促进了心理学的发展。

Cognitive neuroscience is the combination of cognitive psychology and neuroscience. It takes brain mechanism of cognition, the relation between cognition and nerves, brain development and cognitive development as its main research objects. It largely promotes psychological development.

认知神经科学通常采用脑成像技术进行研究，例如：事件相关电位技术（ERP）、功能性磁共振成像技术（FMRI）、正电子发射层扫描技术（PET）、脑磁图（MEG）等。

Cognitive neuroscience usually employs brain imaging technique to conduct researches.

认知神经科学研究旨在阐明认知活动的脑机制，即人类大脑如何调用其各层次上的组件，包括分子、细胞、脑组织区和全脑去实现各种认知活动。近几年认知神经科学主要研究认知功能的脑机制、学习、训练与脑的可塑性、脑发育与认知功能的发展等。在21世纪，认知神经科学的研究有望成为心理学发展的主流。

The study of cognitive neuroscience aims at illuminate the brain mechanism of cognition, in other words how human brain use the components on different leves, including molecules, cells, brain tissue and the whole brain to realize various cognitive activities. In recent years, cognitive neuroscience mainly studies brain mechanism of cognitive function, learning, plasticity of training and brain, and brain development and the development of cognitive function. In 21st century, the study of cognitive neuroscience is expected to become the main trend of psychological development.

10. 浅析对积极心理学的认识
Please briefly analyze your opinion about positive psychology.

积极心理学是一门研究如何正确把握幸福人生的科学，相对于心理学的其他分支，积极心理学更关注人生中那些美好的东西，在他们看来，发生在日常生活中那些美好的事件才是我们人生中最重要的东西。其研究对象包括友善、好奇心等积极的特质，也包括婚姻、教育等可以促进幸福生活的社会因素。

Positive psychology is a science that studies how to correctly grasp happy life. Compared with other branches of psychology, positive psychology pays more attention to good things in life. It holds that good thing that happen in daily life are the most important things in our life. Its research objects include positive qualities such as kindness and curiosity, as well as some social factors that can promote happy life such as marriage and education.